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Water conservation is a known global public issue because water is everybody’s concern. The misuse and overuse of water by humans lead to water conservation practices, which may be ineffective or effective. It acquires more crucial dimensions, especially where the water is scarce and at a time when demand is high. The traditional culture, old water conservation practices, and history have a lot to offer and teach us to realize their importance. These traditional practices and measures, in vogue, on the Indian peninsula provided long-term solutions concerning the saving of water and its requirements. The world cannot afford to lose precious commodity, namely water, that has to be conserved for the present as well as the future. Therefore, let us conserve and save it, make effective use of it for future generations either by learning. or through traditional conservation practices.

Keywords: Water conservation, Traditional culture, Indian peninsula, Water Woes

Soni, A. 2022. Water Woes Solution Through Traditional Conservation Route. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 1-7.

This paper attempts to critically explore the recruitment and mobilisation of Indian indentured labourers to work on sugar plantations in Mauritius to engage with the larger global mobilisation and circulation of labourers in nineteenth century to facilitate the growth of imperial plantation capitalism. This paper attempts to make the departure from studying recruitment and labour mobilisation as a ‘static system’ to study it as a ‘dynamic strategy’ which was mended and modified to suit the purpose of planters, by situating it within the historical context of recruitment of Indian indentured labourers for work on sugar plantations in Mauritius.

Keywords: Indentured labour, labour mobilisation, sugar plantation, Mauritius

Mishra, A.K. 2022. Mobilise to Immobilise: Recruitment of Indian Indentured Labourers for British Sugar Plantations in Mauritius. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 9-23.

Economy is an integral part of human life. Economy refers to all activities which are related to production, consumption and trade of goods and services in an area. Economy is mainly divided into four categories. Traditional economy is most old economy. It is depends on goods services and work all of which follow some established trends. Tribe means people of ethnic group who are belong to the homogenous society. They are identified by their own culture, language, well-structured political boundary using of primitive technology and living in a definite territory. Kora Mudi peoples belong to the Dravidian ethnic group. They primarily live in three eastern provinces. Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal are three main states of their living. The present paper focuses on their present economy system with their traditional economy system and all changes of their economy system in this village. Data sample is taken by purposive sampling. Ledabera is a Kora Mudi tribal people’s village in Purulia district under CharraDumdumi gram panchayat of Purulia block II. In this study the primary data collected by interviews, structured schedule and observation method and secondary data is collected from books, articles internet etc.

Keywords: Economy, Kora-Mudi tribe, Ledabera, Traditional Economy, Tribe

Mishra, A.K. 2022. Mobilise to Immobilise: Recruitment of Indian Indentured Labourers for British Sugar Plantations in Mauritius. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 25-41.

The earliest sources of epigraphy in India are found in the undeciphered inscriptions of the Indus valley Civilization (Indus script) in Indus valley, which date back to the early 3rd millennium BC. Two other important archeological classes of symbols are Megalithic Graffiti marks and symbols on Punch-mark Coins, found from the 1st millennium BCE. But most scholars do not consider these to constitute fully linguistic scripts, and these symbols are not well understood. The earliest deciphered epigraphic inscriptions are the Edicts Ashoka of the 3rd century. More than 1, 00,000 inscriptions were collected by the Archaeological Survey of India and State Archaeological Departments in India. Out of them about 60,000 inscriptions were found in Tamil Nadu. But only about 10 percent of the inscriptions were in other languages such as Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit and Marathi; the rest were in Tamil. Also according to the Sahitya Akademi, around 30,000 inscriptions in the Kannada language and script have been recovered so far.

Keywords: Megalithic, Graffiti marks. Inscription, Tamil brahmi script, Vediappan kovil, Varriyapperum.

Chandrasekar, C. 2022. Hero Stone Inscriptions in Dharmapuri District. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 43-54.

West Bengal has a diverse topography and several natural zones where pre-historic archaeological evidences can be found. Pre-historic stone tools are among them which form an essential part of the study of archaeology in West Bengal. From the Palaeolithic through the Neolithic periods, stone tool technology went through different stages of innovation and experimentation in West Bengal. Several new technologies have emerged that transformed the pre-historic stone tools in many ways. In the light of new archaeological evidences many unknown facts are surfaced which are still unknown. With the help of these new discoveries this paper attempts to demonstrate how the stone tool and its manufacturing techniques evolved in pre-historic West Bengal and what was the factor behind their transformation.

Keywords: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Stone ToolTechnology, Chopper-biface Tradition, Flake Tradition

Debnath, G. 2022. The Evolution of Stone Tool Technology of Pre-Historic West Bengal: A Renewed Archaeological Approach. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 55-67.

Megalithic monuments, scattered in different parts of South India, number a few thousands in existence. The Megalithic monuments of antiquity are always related with some myths and Traditions. Myths and traditions vary from place to place and region to region. But most of the traditions and legends are similar in both character and content, and usually, they convey similar meaning. Pandavas, the mythological heroes of Indian lore are often given credit for the construction of megalithic monuments, particularly the dolmens and dolmenoid-cists. Such monuments are known as “Pandavula gullu”, “Pandavula penta”, and “Pandugutta chenulu”, etc. In Telugu “banda” means ‘stone.’ “Pandavula banda” and “Pandavula gudi” or “gullu” are the two names which are found connected with many megalithic sites in Chittoor District. Particularly in the Rayalaseema districts of Andhra Pradesh there is a legend among the local people that the Pandavas constructed the monuments during the period of their exile.

In some places, the megaliths are associated with mythology, For example in some of the regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the megalihic monments are referred as “Pandavara mane” or ‘’Pandu Pare” meaning ‘House of the Pandus’ or ‘stone of the Pandus.’’ In some other places in Telangana state, the same is refered as ‘Rakshasa gullus’ At Kaperlaguru in the Warangal District, the area noticed with megalithic monuments is known as “Rakshasa gudiam” meaning ‘village of the domons. Sewell noticed the Telugu names ‘Rakshasa gullu’ or ‘goli - the Rakshasa’ and derives the name of Goli villages.

Keywords: Anthropomorphic Statues, Cist burials, Megalithic, Menhirs Myths and Traditions, Neolithic

Narayana, J. 2022. Megalithic Myths and Traditions in Rayalaseema Region of Andhra Pradesh. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 69-79.

The present paper deals with the irrigation system during the period of Kakatiyas. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people and Irrigation is the back bone of Agriculture during the medieval period in Andhradesa. Artificial irrigation form is an important factor which must have supplied drinking water to a household and growth of agrarian economy. The importance of irrigation in agricultural economy was recognized in ancient and mediaeval Times. Historians recognized that one of the major prerequisites of the evolution of a civilization in any society is a surplus production of food grains and other agricultural produce. It is a universal fact that the development of agriculture and food production directly depends on the water resources without adequate water resources food production, because scarce and hence life is insecure. In the absence of perennial rivers farmers totally depend upon the rainfall or irrigation facilities.

Keywords: Artificial irrigation, Civilization, Water resources, Agriculture

Narasimhulu, K. 2022. Irrigation System during the Time of Kakatiyas in Andhradesa. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 81-85.

In the absence of required sources, reconstructing the glorious but unrevealed Jaina antiquity of Kerala region has been a herculean task for historians and researchers. The main reason behind the scarcity of sources is the high density of population which led to the rapid urbanization leading to the encroachment and obliteration of historical sites and evidences. Furthermore, most of the monuments were constructed with the perishable wooden materials. To compound the problem still further, researches into historical archaeology focusing on systematic, problem oriented explorations and excavations are very few and far between. Because of the aforesaid factors, scholars of Kerala History are generally reluctant to venture into the Jaina studies. Against this backdrop, the present study is based on some native as well as extra-native inscriptional evidences associated to the Ancient Cheras which have a significant bearing on the historical developments of Kerala. The analysis of those records can clearly shed fresh light into the dark corners of the history of Jainism in Kerala; as also a landmark in the politico religious history of the region, as it is evidently affiliating Jainism with the Ancient Cheras. These crucial records in Tamil-Brahmi and Tamil-Malayalam Vatteluttu scripts with old Tamil and Malayalam languages provide some vital missing links in the early history of Kerala.

Keywords: History of Kerala - Jainism in Kerala - Ancient Chera Dynasty - Jainism under the Cheras - Epigraphical Sources - Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions - Sangam Classics - Jaina Athan –

Dhiraj, M.S. 2022. Jainism under the Ancient Cheras, of Kerala. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 87-99.

The Hindu perceptions of the Universe as reflected in the sacred texts never remain to be static but keep on changing. The imaginary and speculative ideas of the Hindu myth-makers had given rise to symmetric Cosmos consisting of the three realms-the earth in the middle separating the Heavens and the Nether World with each realm consisting of seven Lōkas. Most of the major Purāṇas provide the mythical geography of the Universe with some variations and refer to the Saptadvīpas in the form of lotus petals, seven Oceans, Mount Mēru (the Axis Mundi), mountains, divine beings, and people of all classes, animals and birds. However, it was not until the Nāyaka period of 17th Century CE that the artists of South India attempted to create the allegorical portrayal of the Cosmos in the image of a man with different components of the Universe, assigned to the corresponding body parts. This article attempts to analyse the iconography of the very few surviving unique mural paintings noticed in the two Vaishnavite temples located at Srirangam and Adiyamankottai (Tamil Nadu state) that relates to the creation of the Universe and its compositional structure, respectively with the help of the images and texts written in Telugu. The study reveals the continuation of the Hindu cosmological views, religious and devotional faith in Lord Vishṇu as the Supreme and Omnipotent deity whose body is regarded as the Cosmos in the iconic form of ViśvarūpaVishṇu that balances both Saiva and Vaishnava elements in the subsequent periods.

Keywords: Adiyamankottai, Saptadvīpa, Srirangam, Trilōkas, Viśvarūpa-Vishṇu

Krishnakumari, M. 2022. Iconography of the Cosmic God and the Three Worlds-Gleanings through the Paintings of Tamil Nadu. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 101-122.

The subject and meaning of the reliefs on the monumental structure, Mahānavamī Dibba at Vijayanagara, have been a conundrum, especially in the context of royal ceremony and religious ritual. The paper examines political power in the context of the mahānavamī festival as recapitulated in the reliefs on the Dibba. Another significant aspect of the inquiry entails the social and political uses of ritual ceremony and its relation with the formal structure of society. Finally, one may even discern a meaning in the workings of society through the ceremonial or that of the ceremonial for state stability.

Keywords: Mahānavamī, Ritual, Ceremony, Hampi, sculpture, architecture

Nalini Rao 2022. The Meaning of Ritual and Ceremony in a Political Context: An Analysis of Architectural Reliefs. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 123-137.

This paper is intended to work on the Sanskrit literary sources and inscriptions in order to construct the image of the Muslims in the Hindu realm during the early medieval period. The rare occurrence of the Muslims in the Hindu army and administration as apparent from the survey of sources puts a question on their reliability. The shelter provided to a few of the enemy troops or officials by Hammira, the Rajput ruler of Ranthambhor and Rai Karna of Vaghela dynasty of Gujarat was apart from the tradition andundoubtedly sets an example of the broad mindedness of the Indian kings during the dark phase wherein no reliance was generally put upon the Muslims in general and their image as raiders was predetermined in the thoughts of the Indian folk. The historical figure in the name of Mahimasahi was nevertheless a remarkable example of the loyalty of a Mangol chief, who could transform himself as a Rajput by way of his martial spirit.

Keywords: Tajika, Hammirmahakavya, Turushkas, Samyana, Chinchani, Madhumad.

Upadhyaya, R. 2022. The Muslim Elements in Hindu Polity during Early Medieval Period. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 139-148.

Therῑgāthā provides knowledge of the social background and different experiences of Therīs.1 They were belonging to different social categories like Royals, Brāhmaṇas, Merchants and Courtesans. But the information regarding familial background of some of Theris is absent. These women become Bhikkhunī for different reasons like greed, lust and hate the household life. In Therῑgāthā Bhikkhunī compiled the religious experience they came from several regions, which was a famous centre of Buddhism. Śrāvastῑ was one of them. Upāsikā Viśākha was lived in Śrāvastῑ. She built Vihara for Bhikkhunī as Pubbaram near Jetavana. Some famous Bhikkhunis belonged to Śrāvastῑ like Paṭācārā, Kisāgotamī, Sumagalamata, Punnā or Paṇṇika. Before analyzing these social-religious experiences of Śrāvastῑ’ Bhikkhunī. We try to understand the historical context of the Therῑgāthā. This discussion is important because in this way we might get a clue about Śrāvastῑ’s Bhikkhunī. Here, I will discuss the religious experience of 15 Bhikkhunis of Śrāvastῑ.

Keywords: Sravasti, Bhikshuni, Therῑgāthā, Sangha, Religious experiences.

Kumar, R. 2022. Bhikṣuṇīs of Early Historic Śrāvastī: Some Gleanings from the Therīgāthā. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 149-155.

The changing status of the material culture of the Santals is a significant aspect of modernization. Being the oldest ethnological section of the population, they still pursue their primitive way of living. If not the major, but most of the Santal communities gradually dived into the ever-changing modern society. Mass media play a significant role in the upbringing of the livelihood of the people and also among the Santals, as far as previous research had been concerned. Accordingly, mass media played an active role in the significant change of the material culture among the Santals. This paper deals with the role of mass media towards the changing patterns of household objects, quest for good personal care, dress, adornments, religious objects and musical instruments. Giving an ethnographic account of the different aspects of material culture, the analysis also finds out what aspects of their culture has changed overtime and what primitive and traditional aspects still exists among the Santals. For the purpose of the research work the study has been conducted in a Santal village of the Birbhum district of West Bengal.

Keywords: Material Culture, Mass Media, Santal Development, Modernization

Paul, S.K., & De, S. 2022. Material Culture and Mass Media: A Study on the Changing Status among the Tribals. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 157-166.

The present research deals with Indus Script; Indus valley civilization. The Indus script invented before 2600BC, reflect the fundamental changes in social, political and ritual organization that accompanied the formation and consolidation of cities, when the first inscribed era of economic and political hegemony that would last 700years.This paper also tries to find out where the script was emerged, deciphering dilemma and trying to understand how the script was used and possibly why it disappeared.

Keywords: Indus Script, Emergence, Grapheme, Carved, Incised, Chiseled, Inlaid, Painted, Molded, Embossed, Rebus Principal, Disappearance.

Quratulain Mir Bahar 2022. Indus Script: Complexities and Deciphering Challenges. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 167-175.

Today, millions of people generally use currency as a mode of official communication and dissemination and, it has become a powerful and trusted aid material. Coins issued as a means of the transaction include various artistic expressions and are also used as a symbol of power. Coins issued by any state always represent different aspects of its society. It is acknowledged that the images, symbols, and legends inscribed in a coin, reflect the political, religious, cultural, and economic statuses. Among those are also coins that were issued to commemorate a particular event. These coins are identified as commemorative coins. From 1957 to 2021, the Central Bank of Ceylon has issued 68 commemorative coins of various denominations for 43 special events. When issuing commemorative coins related to special events, images related to that event are depicted on the coin. This study aimed to identify the symbolic communication features depicted on commemorative coins. This study is based on a field survey that facilitated obtaining data and information. The commemorative coins on display from 1957 to 2021 at the Central Bank of Ceylon Museum were studied. Published literature was critically reviewed. Commemorative coins issued based on special occasions can be divided into several themes. Many of these commemorative coins were issued to communicate political information. Even in the issuance of commemorative coins, the primary purpose was to communicate political information to the public. It can also be considered a mode of representation of the Sri Lankan identity that can be proudly communicated to the world.

Keywords: Central Bank, Commemorative coins, Images, Symbols, Legends

Gamage, Upeksha 2022. Commemorative Coins Issued in Sri Lanka and their Symbolic Features of Communication (From 1957 to the end of 2021). South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 177-194.

Ancient paintings situated in a crevice in the rock-face of Sigiriya, the renowned world heritage site, which is an ancient rock fortress located in the Matale district Sri Lanka have captured marked interest of ancient people as well as the modern scholars. Only 19 complete female figures and 4 remnants of 3 female figures were preserved to the modern days. The sigiriya paintings have been interpreted in various contexts and the discussion on the subject of sigiriya paintings is one of several. In this paper selected female figures in frescoes pockets were studied in order to determine the age limits of selected female figures ultimately to contribute to the literature on these paintings with a different point of view. Tanner staging of the breast development was used in context to the age of menarche and its relation to tanner stage breast development to propose more scientific proposition on the lower limit of the female figures. In most girls menarche occurs in tanner stage IV breast development. Age of 14 year was considered the median age of menarche during king Kashyapa’s time (477-495 AD) which was the logical lower limit of chronological age. Menopausal effect is one of the major causes of breast ptosis. Age of 40 years was considered the age of menopause during the time period king Kashyapa ruled this country. Paintings of female figures were selected from fresco pocket B. In current study fresco B3, B5, B7, B9, B10, B12, B13 were assed to determine the age limit. Paintings in which the upper body was covered with jacket and figures that could not adequately be examined for the breast anatomy were excluded in this study to maintain the consistency of results. In this research, in selected female figures- fresco B3, B5, B7, B9, B10, B12, B13, the lower limit of the chronological age was 14 years, the upper limit of the chronological age was 40 years. This finding is in accordance with several scholarly interpretations on the subject of paintings and also it provides scientific fortification to existing opinions and interpretations on the subject of paintings.

Keywords: Sigiriya paintings, Chronological age limit, Tanner staging, Regnault classification

Subasinghe, W.T.I.M., & Karunarathna, H.H.A. 2022. Chronological Age Limit of Female Figures Portrayed in Sigiriya Fresco Pockets. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 2: 1, pp. 195-217.