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The territorial extent of deities in western Himalayan region has remained a subject of deep enquiry. The subject still holds scholars’ interest owing to the further extension of these threads in to religious notion of people of Kullu region with respect to caste and gender prevailing in dev-samãj. Present study is an attempt to see caste and gender involvement in dev-Samãj of Banjar region of Kullu. This article traces the involvement of these two factors from temple management to family system of deities in the backdrop of present changes taking place in the life of villagers as followers. It also tries to enquire in to the involvement of new elements in age-old traditions of dev-samãj where women form a different set altogether in temple management.

Through this empirical study, it has been tried to develop an understanding of historic-religious notions of dev-samãj through the prism of caste and gender involved in running the administration at various levels. It also highlights few lesser known facts of dev-samãj by pin-pointing transitions and continuity in religious culture of the area. This small frame investigation of a western Himalayan region is an attempt to connect caste and gender developments in the religious spheres at pan-Indian lines while at parallel level highlighting the importance of integrating regional histories with south-Asian history.

Keywords: Caste, Dev-samãj, Gender, Gūr, kãrdãr, Kullu, Western Himalaya

Reena & Anjali Verma 2021. Influence of Gender and Caste on Dev-Samaj of Banjar Region in Kullu in Himachal Pradesh. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 1-15

The Hindu texts divide historical time periods in kalpas, manvantaras and yugas. We have tried to match these periods with evidences from astronomy, archaeology, genealogy, genetics and literature. We find that the texts tell of one kalpa of 4320 human years. The first part of this, the Braahm Kalpa overlapped with the first sixmanvantaras and also overlapped with the Krita Yuga. The second part of the same kalpa, the Varaha Kalpa, overlapped with 7th to 14th manvantaras and with the Treta-Dwapar-Kali Yugas. The Varaha Kalpa, the second set of eight manvantaras and the Kali Yuga—all came to an end around 800 BCE along with the Dark Ages.

Keywords: Archaeology, Astronomy, Chaturyuga, Genealogy, Genetics, Kalpa, Literature, Manu, Manvantara, Yuga.

Jhunjhunwala, B. 2021. Chaturyuga, Manvantara and Kalpa in the Light of Evidence Astronomy, Archaeology, Genealogy, Genetics and Literature. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 17-33

Proto-historic settlement process is the first cultural interference (Deraniyagala, 1986). Building a cultural environment has taken place during this time (Karunarathna, 2018). Human settlement has been in existent even before the prehistoric era in this zone. Rajagala archaeological monastic premises is located in an isolated mountain range (Nandadeva, 1982). The basic objective of this research is to confirm cultural phases of Rajagala Archaeological premises. For this purpose, archaeological evidence and historical data were based. The research problem is how geographical position influence for the building of monastic complex detaching from human settlement. In the process of collecting data for the research, field study measurement techniques, planning and drawing, geographical position system and referencing to relevant sources took place. In the process of data analysis, geographical information system (GIS), Expertise knowledge, excavation data were utilized and accordingly a decision was arrived at as a result of this five (05) major cultural intervention phases confirmed. i.e. Prehistoric and proto historic Phase, cave temple phase, monastic complex Phase, intervention Phase by Department of Archaeology, and the current intervention. One fact which confirmed according to the evaluation of this cultural periods is that Rajagala archaeological premises has been built as a monastery complex with the state patronage complying with the geographical location, during fourth and fifth periods base on the institutional intervention cultural environment has been built.

Keywords: Cultural Intervention, Geophysical, Landscape, Settlement, Proto-historic.

Karunarathna, H.H.A. 2021. A Study on the Cultural Landscape of Rajagala Monastic Complex in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 35-49

The main objective of this research paper is to provide preliminary finding of archaeology excavations carried out at Rajagala in Ampara District, Eastern Province. Rajagalatenna, Ampara is famous for being a Buddhist temple complex from the 3rd century BCE. Rajagala monastic complex had been initially name as Girikumhiila Tissa PabbathaViharaya. Preliminary investigations revealed that prehistoric human activity took place in the natural cave of the area before the third century BC. Accordingly, from 2016 to 2019, selected cave called Maha Lena (ML) was excavated for further investigation. This cave was excavated jointly by Deccan College and University of Sri Jayawardanepura. Excavations in 2018 and 2019 revealed a large number of prehistoric evidence. Among them are stone tools, bone tools, animal bones and botanical remains. We have very limited knowledge of prehistoric research and information in the Eastern Province compared to the Low land Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Accordingly, the focus was on research questions on the subsistence of prehistoric humans living in the caves of the Eastern Province and how environmental conditions have changed in relation to the wet zone. Faunal and botanical remains have been recorded from ML, denoting the prevalence of climatic conditions similar to those of the present.

Keywords: Rajagala, Ampara, Prehistory, Excavation, Mahalena.

K.M.A. Kapukotuwa, G. Ranasinghe, M.D.I.K. Abeynayake, E.G.J. Suranga, Vasant Shine & Nilesh Jadhav 2021. Preliminary Finding of Archaeology Excavation from Rajagalamahalena Cave in Estern Province of Sri Lanka. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 51-62

The epithets of Viṣṇu are 1,000 that appear in the Anuśāsanaparvā of the Mahābhārata. The epic as a codified itihāsa, supposed to have reached the magnitude of its literary evolution by about 500 BCE. Interpolations (e.g., Bhagavadgītā) seem to have taken place sometime down to early centuries C.E. The sahasranāma (1,000 Epithets) of Viṣṇu and Śiva got entangled with the main epic by about this time. The 1,000 could not have been the invention of a particular seer or sage. It must have been a compilation of what was current in oral, ritual and devotional circulation since ancient time and coherently knit at one point in time. These names are likely to include the folk and the classical, national-regional and sub-regional or tribal (e.g., ‘Āycciyarkuravai’ in Cilappatikāram, Rajarajan 2016: 45-47, 338-42), and unite the two parallel streams of Indian culture, the Drāviḍian and the Āryan. For example, the name, Nārāyaṇa is of Draviḍian origin, traced from nir “water (water dweller)” (Keny 1942); cf. Jalaśayana (Jeyapriya 2018). The Tamil Āḻvārs that contributed nearly 4,000 hymns (some 3,770), called Nālāyiram on Māl/Viṣṇu have noted the 1,000 Epithets but do not present a consolidated list in a form as found in the sahasranāma of the Mahābhārata. They cite the āyiranāmam “1,000 Names” sporadically (infra). We get a list of names unevenly spread over the thousands of hymns that may not be sufficient to list 1,000.

Keywords: Epic, Hymns, Āḻvārs, Images, Cult

Rajarajan, R.K.K. 2021. Daśāvatāras in the Hymns of the Āḻvārs. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 63-71

The lower Pala rriver in the Kanchipuram district is considered to be a focus centre of history and civilization in the southern part of India. In this region which serves as human habitation right from the hominids till today, it is possible that the early humans not only made tools on the river bank but also lived there for a very long time. Evidence is indicating to the fact that it took centuries of concerted effort to improve upon the metallurgical processes. The development of metallurgy has been appeared into three stages in different periods in India such as–

The foregoing evidence reveals that the early Iron technologies, settlement pattern and socio-cultural system developments in the region. Iron technological know-how gradually penetrated in the region during the early period of the last millennium BCE. The unearthed evidence such as the number of furnaces in more than two kilometer stretch indicates that a mass scale iron smelting and manufacturing objects in the area. Different shapes and sizes of memorial structures in all typologies at one place is not only a rare evidence but also reported for the first time in the burial architecture. Particularly in the shape of turtle, retail, cist and dolman with in a circle, etc. are a new feature in the burial architecture in the region or elsewhere. It is a remarkable unique feature of the lower Palar region during the Early Iron Age.

Keywords: Civilization, Human habitation, Iron technologies, Settlement pattern

Pisipaty, S. R. K. 2021. Early Iron Age in Lower Palar Region. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 73-88

Rock art represents a striking human artistic achievement that enriches us and inspires respect, admiration and enthusiasm in those who see it. The natural landscape setting of rock art enhances its interior beauty, and brings the landscape a complete package for the tourism industry. But there is a lack of awareness among tourism stakeholders about the real importance / proper handling of this delicate art that deteriorates due to vandalism, or natural causes. Conservation and conservation of rock art can only be possible by promoting awareness through strategic management of rock art tourism. This qualitative study analyzed research on rock art tourism and created a model with case analysis of unexplained and untapped rock art tourism in the Hadoti region of Rajasthan, India.

Keywords: Rock Art, Tourism, Rock Engraving, Rock Painting, Sustainability

Srivastava, S. 2021. Rock art Tourism Development and Conservation Challenges. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 1, pp. 89-101